Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a progressive and physically debilitating chronic medical condition in which the heart is unable to supply sufficient blood flow to meet the body's needs. CHF is a form of chronic cardiac dysfunction that affects nearly five million people each year in the United States alone and continues to be the leading cause of hospitalization for persons over the age of 65. CHF requires seeking timely medical attention.
Pathologically, CHF is characterized by an elevated neuroexitatory state that is accompanied by impaired arterial and cardiopulmonary baroreflex function and reduced vagal activity. CHF is initiated by cardiac dysfunction, which triggers compensatory activations of the sympathoadrenal (sympathetic) nervous and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone hormonal systems. Initially, these two mechanisms help the heart to compensate for deteriorating pumping function. Over time, however, overdriven sympathetic activation and increased heart rate promote progressive left ventricular dysfunction and remodeling, and ultimately foretell poor long term patient outcome.
Anatomically, the heart is innervated by sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves originating through the vagus nerve and arising from the body's cervical and upper thoracic regions. The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, though separate aspects of the autonomous nervous system, dynamically interact thorough signals partially modulated by cAMP and cGMP secondary messengers. When in balance, each nervous system can presynaptically inhibit the activation of the other nervous system's nerve traffic. During CHF, however, the body suffers an autonomic imbalance of these two nervous systems, which leads to cardiac arrhythmogenesis, progressively worsening cardiac function, and eventual mortality.
Currently, the standard of care for managing chronic cardiac dysfunction, such as CHF, includes prescribing medication and mandating changes to a patient's diet and lifestyle, to counteract cardiac dysfunction. These medications include diuretics, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, beta-blockers, and aldosterone antagonists, which cause vasodilation, reduce secretion of vasopressin, reduce production and secretion of aldosterone, lower arteriolar resistance, increase venous capacity, increase cardiac output, index and volume, lower renovascular resistance, and lead to increased natriuresis, among other effects. The effectiveness of these medications is palliative, but not curative. Moreover, patients often suffer side effects and comorbidities, such as pulmonary edema, sleep apnea, and myocardial ischemia. Re-titration of drug therapy following crisis may be required, and neither continued drug efficacy nor patient survival are assured.
More recently, cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) has become available to patients presenting with impairment of systolic function, such as is caused by an intraventricular conduction delay or bundle-branch block that forces the heart's ventricles to contract dyssynchronously. Typically, implantable CRT devices use a set of biventricular leads to stimulate both the ventricular septum and the lateral wall of the left ventricle. CRT restores the synchronous beating of the heart through coordinated pacing of both ventricles. However, CRT is only helpful for treating systolic dysfunction and is not indicated for patients presenting with preserved ejection fraction. Thus, CRT is limited to patients exhibiting a wide QRS complex and mechanical dyssynchrony, whereas patients presenting with systolic dysfunction or impaired ejection fraction and a narrow QRS have limited therapeutic options.
Medication and CRT are only partial solutions to managing chronic cardiac dysfunction, and neural stimulation has been proposed as an alternative way to treat chronic cardiac dysfunction conditions, such as CHF, by correcting the underlying autonomic imbalance of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The heart contains an intrinsic nervous system that includes spatially-distributed sensory afferent neurons, interconnecting local circuit neurons, and motor adrenergic and cholinergic efferent neurons. Peripheral cell stations of these neurons activate under the tonic influence of spinal cord and medullary reflexes and circulating catecholamines to influence overlapping regions of the heart. Suppression of excessive neural activation by electrically modulating select vagal nerve fibers may help improve the heart's mechanical function as well as to reduce the heart's intrinsic nervous system's propensity to induce atrial arrhythmias during autonomic imbalance.
Electrical vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is currently used clinically for the treatment of drug-refractory epilepsy and depression, and is under investigation for applications in Alzheimer's disease, anxiety, heart failure, inflammatory disease, and obesity. In particular, vagus nerve stimulation has been proposed as a long-term therapy for the treatment of CHF, as described in Sabbah et al., “Vagus Nerve Stimulation in Experimental Heart Failure,” Heart Fail. Rev., 16:171-178 (2011), the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference. The Sabbah paper discusses canine studies using a vagus stimulation device, manufactured by BioControl Medical Ltd., Yehud, Israel, which includes a signal generator, right ventricular sensing lead, and right vagus nerve cuff stimulation lead. The sensing leads enable stimulation of the right vagus nerve to be synchronized to the cardiac cycle through feedback on-demand heart rate control. A bipolar nerve cuff electrode was surgically implanted on the right vagus nerve at the mid-cervical position. Electrical stimulation to the right cervical vagus nerve was delivered only when heart rate increased beyond a preset level to reduce basal heart rate by ten percent. Self-titration using “magnet mode” was impracticable in light of the test subject, here canine. Stimulation was provided at an impulse rate and intensity intended to keep the heart rate within a desired range by preferential stimulation of efferent nerve fibers leading to the heart while blocking afferent neural impulses to the brain. An asymmetric bi-polar multi-contact cuff electrode was employed to provide cathodic induction of action potentials while simultaneously applying asymmetric anodal blocks that were expected to lead to preferential, but not exclusive, activation of vagal efferent fibers. Although effective in restoring baroreflex sensitivity and, in the canine model, significantly increasing left ventricular ejection fraction and decreasing left ventricular end diastolic and end systolic volumes, restoration of autonomic balance was left unaddressed.
Other uses of electrical nerve stimulation for therapeutic treatment of various physiological conditions are described. For instance, U.S. Pat. No. 6,600,954, issued Jul. 29, 2003 to Cohen et al. discloses a method and apparatus for selective control of nerve fibers. At least one electrode device is applied to a nerve bundle capable, upon activation, of generating unidirectional action potentials to be propagated through both small diameter and large diameter sensory fibers in the nerve bundle, and away from the central nervous system. The device is particularly useful for reducing pain sensations, such as propagating through the legs and arms.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,684,105, issued Jan. 27, 2004 to Cohen et al. discloses an apparatus for treatment of disorders by unidirectional nerve stimulation. An apparatus for treating a specific condition includes a set of one or more electrode devices that are applied to selected sites of the central or peripheral nervous system of the patient. For some applications, a signal is applied to a nerve, such as the vagus nerve, to stimulate efferent fibers and treat motility disorders, or to a portion of the vagus nerve innervating the stomach to produce a sensation of satiety or hunger. For other applications, a signal is applied to the vagus nerve to modulate electrical activity in the brain and rouse a comatose patient, or to treat epilepsy and involuntary movement disorders.
U.S. Pat. No. 7,123,961, issued Oct. 17, 2006 to Kroll et al. discloses stimulation of autonomic nerves. An autonomic nerve is stimulated to affect cardiac function using a stimulation device in electrical communication with the heart by way of three leads suitable for delivering multi-chamber stimulation and shock therapy. In addition, the device includes a fourth lead having three electrodes positioned in or near the heart, or near an autonomic nerve remote from the heart. Power is delivered to the electrodes at a set power level. The power is delivered at a reduced level if cardiac function was affected.
U.S. Pat. No. 7,225,017, issued May 29, 2007 to Shelchuk discloses terminating ventricular tachycardia. Cardioversion stimulation is delivered upon detecting a ventricular tachycardia. A stimulation pulse is delivered to a lead having one or more electrodes positioned proximate to a parasympathetic pathway. Optionally, the stimulation pulse is delivered post inspiration or during a refractory period to cause a release of acetylcholine.
U.S. Pat. No. 7,277,761, issued Oct. 2, 2007 to Shelchuk discloses vagal stimulation for improving cardiac function in heart failure or CHF patients. An autonomic nerve is stimulated to affect cardiac function using a stimulation device in electrical communication with the heart by way of three leads suitable for delivering multi-chamber stimulation and shock therapy. In addition, the device includes a fourth lead having three electrodes positioned in or near the heart, or near an autonomic nerve remote from the heart. A need for increased cardiac output is detected and a stimulation pulse is delivered through an electrode, for example, proximate to the left vagosympathetic trunk or branch to thereby stimulate a parasympathetic nerve. If the stimulation has caused sufficient increase in cardiac output, ventricular pacing may then be initiated at an appropriate reduced rate.
U.S. Pat. No. 7,295,881, issued Nov. 13, 2007 to Cohen et al. discloses nerve branch-specific action potential activation, inhibition and monitoring. Two preferably unidirectional electrode configurations flank a nerve junction from which a preselected nerve branch issues, proximally and distally to the junction, with respect to the brain. Selective nerve branch stimulation can be used in conjunction with nerve-branch specific stimulation to achieve selective stimulation of a specific range of fiber diameters, substantially restricted to a preselected nerve branch, including heart rate control, where activating only the vagal B nerve fibers in the heart, and not vagal A nerve fibers that innervate other muscles, can be desirous.
U.S. Pat. No. 7,778,703, issued Aug. 17, 2010 to Gross et al. discloses selective nerve fiber stimulation for treating heart conditions. An electrode device is adapted to be coupled to a vagus nerve of a subject and a control unit drives the electrode device by applying to the vagus nerve a stimulating current and also an inhibiting current, which are capable of respectively inducing action potentials in a therapeutic direction in a first set and a second set of nerve fibers in the vagus nerve and inhibiting action potentials in the therapeutic direction in the second set of nerve fibers only. The nerve fibers in the second set have larger diameters than the nerve fibers in the first set. The control unit typically drives the electrode device to apply signals to the vagus nerve to induce the propagation of efferent action potentials towards the heart and suppress artificially-induced afferent action potentials toward the brain.
U.S. Pat. No. 7,813,805, issued Oct. 12, 2010 to Farazi and U.S. Pat. No. 7,869,869, issued Jan. 11, 2011 to Farazi both disclose subcardiac threshold vagal nerve stimulation. A vagal nerve stimulator is configured to generate electrical pulses below a cardiac threshold of the heart, which are transmitted to a vagal nerve, so as to inhibit or reduce injury resulting from ischemia. The cardiac threshold is a threshold for energy delivered to the heart above which there is a slowing of the heart rate or conduction velocity. In operation, the vagal nerve stimulator generates the electrical pulses below the cardiac threshold, such that heart rate is not affected.
Finally, U.S. Pat. No. 7,885,709, issued Feb. 8, 2011 to Ben-David discloses nerve stimulation for treating disorders. A control unit can be configured to drive an electrode device to stimulate the vagus nerve, so as to modify heart rate variability, or to reduce heart rate, by suppressing the adrenergic (sympathetic) system. The vagal stimulation reduces the release of catecholamines in the heart, thereby lowering adrenergic tone at its source. For some applications, the control unit synchronizes the stimulation with the subject's cardiac cycle, while for other applications, the stimulation can be applied, for example, in a series of pulses. To reduce heart rate, stimulation is applied using a target heart rate lower than the subject's normal average heart rate.
Accordingly, a need remains for an approach to therapeutically treating chronic cardiac dysfunction, including CHF, through a form of electrical stimulation of the cervical vagus nerve to confirm pre-therapeutic cardiovascular drive and subsequently restore autonomic balance.